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The global gross enrolment ratio for tertiary education was 39%, continuing a steady average growth of around one percentage point per year since 2000. These administrative data do not always agree with survey data on attendance. Enrolment may underestimate attendance if many students attend institutions that are not counted in official statistics because they lack recognition or accreditation. Conversely, enrolment may overestimate attendance if many students are enrolled only nominally, especially where tuition is free and student status comes with subsidized services. Also, administrative data relate to the nominal age range of five years immediately following the upper secondary graduation age, but tertiary study at higher ages is common, especially in sub-Saharan Africa.

Affordability of tertiary education from a lifetime perspective does not make such education affordable upfront. The economic case for cost sharing in tertiary education depends crucially on prospective entrants not facing credit constraints. Student loans of various kinds are available in over 70 countries and have grown into a trillion-dollar market. In many countries, the proportion of borrowers’ income required to repay student loans is excessive, especially for the least well-off graduates. More promising policy reform has involved a shift from the widely used time-based repayment loans to income-contingent loans.

In most high-income countries, employers are the single biggest provider of adult education and training, highlighting the need for policies to target individuals who are outside the labour market. Even for those employed, time to pursue training may be as important as sponsorship, showing the need for public interventions in the form of education leave programmes. Longitudinal data from six high-income countries show that adult education is a recurrent pursuit for a significant minority, especially among the more educated