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The largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia, Tonle Sap, is also the only Biosphere Reserve registered in Cambodia within the framework of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. In the perspective of the development of sustainable beekeeping at the Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve (TSBR), a rapid-assessment of the beekeeping ecosystem has been undertaken. The assessment aimed at documenting (i) the biology, status and trend of native bees, (ii) bee activities such as beekeeping and wild honey collection, and (iii) bee forage plants in Cambodia and in the TSBR. Furthermore, the potential of the TSBR for the development of bee activities was evaluated.

The assessment was implemented in two phases. Preparatory work was first conducted in July 2020 through a basic literature review of native bees and beekeeping in the region as well as through interviews with specialists on bees and beekeeping operating in and around the TSBR. A field assessment was then conducted in August 2020 in four areas and their respective communities of the TSBR: (i) Me Tuek Commune in Pursat Province, (ii) Phat Sandai Commune and Stung Sen Core Area in Kampong Thom Province, (iii) Kah Chhiveang Communeand Prek Toal Core Area in Battambang Province and (iv) Kampong Khleang and Danrun Communes in Siem Reap Province.

Two of the four Cambodian native honey bee species are present in the TSBR: the Asian giant honey bee, Apis dorsata, and the red dwarf honey bee, Apis florea. Remarkably, the native cavity nesting species, Apis cerana as well as stingless bees are absent from the Tonle Sap flooded forest. Apis dorsata colonies of the Tonle Sap undertake complex migration patterns comprising several nesting sites within the TSBR and movements between the flooded forest and uplands.

While Apis florea seems to be quite abundant in the flooded forest, Apis dorsata populations have undergone a sharp decline throughout the TSBR. Habitat loss, due to forest fires and forest clearing, as well as over-hunting pressure are very likely the main causes of this decline. Although generalized, Apis dorsata population decline is not homogeneous throughout the TSBR and the status of the populations shows significant disparities from one area of flooded forest to another.

Three types of beekeeping are practiced in Southeast Asia: beekeeping with the introduced Western honey bee (Apis mellifera), beekeeping with the native Asian honey bee, Apis cerana, and meliponiculture (keeping stingless bees). Whereas beekeeping with native bees, Apis cerana and stingless bees, is well developed in many Southeast Asian countries, it is still nearly nonexistent in Cambodia where beekeeping has mainly been developed with Apis mellifera. Although rapidly growing, beekeeping in Cambodia remains poorly developed when compared to other Southeast Asian countries.

The main honeys produced by Cambodian beekeepers are acacia, kapok, longan and rub-ber tree. As is often the case in other Southeast Asian countries, honey is usually harvested from the brood box and Cambodian beekeepers commonly spin all frames containing honey. Many Cambodian beekeepers optimize their honey yields by moving their boxes to succes-sive blooms, a practice called beekeeping transhumance. Estimations of annual honey yields per hive, based on beekeepers’ declarations, range between 10 to more than 80 kg, with an average of over 50 kg. Wholesale prices for Cambodian Apis mellifera honeys commonly range between 4 and 9$/kg with the exception of coffee honey whose wholesale prices are around 13$/kg. Honey adulteration is a major concern among Cambodian consumers who mostly perceive honey crystallization as a sign of adulteration.

Apis mellifera presents the advantage of producing more honey than Apis cerana and stingless bees. On the other hand, beekeeping with Apis mellifera requires higher investments and skills. Moreover, as the species is not native, it is more sensitive to local predators, parasites and diseases. Requiring lower investments and skills and more resistant pests and diseases, Apis cerana and stingless bees are particularly well adapted for less-resourced communities.

In general, beekeeping in the TSBR is limited to a single Apis mellifera bee farm located in Ou Preal village, Me Tuek commune, Pursat Province.

In Cambodia, wild honey is mainly collected from two species: the Asian giant honey bee, Apis dorsata, and the red dwarf honey bee, Apis florea. Wild honey collection in the floodedforest generates income to hundreds and possibly thousands of less-advantaged households living in and around the TSBR. The number of honey hunters operating in the TSBR has increased substantially over the past few years. Sustainable honey harvesting methods are poorly known among TSBR honey hunters, and the unsustainable method “one cut take all” in which whole nests are cut off, appears to be systematic in the Tonle Sap flooded forest.

TSBR wild honey and bee brood trading involves numerous stakeholders and the demand for wild bee products exceeds the supply. Wholesale prices for honey harvested in the TSBR range between 12.5 and 20$ per liter. Bee brood and wax are commonly traded for 12.5$ per liter. Honey quality is often low as a consequence of high moisture level and a lack of honey processing skills among honey collectors and traders. Suspicion of adulteration of honey is widespread among customers and wholesalers in the TSBR.

The two native honey bee species present in the TSBR, the Asian giant honey bee, Apis dorsata, and the red dwarf honey bee, Apis florea, hold high ecological and socio-economic value for the ecosystem and the communities of the Tonle Sap. Unfortunately, honey hunters have a low level of awareness on the importance of bees for the Tonle Sap ecosystem, nor the adverse impact of unsustainable harvesting methods on honey bee populations.

The success of beekeeping essentially depends on the abundance of bee flora in an area. Though often empirically proven, the potential of Southeast Asian natural ecosystems for beekeeping is poorly documented and no inventory of wild Cambodian bee plants has yet been conducted.

56 bee plants were inventoried in August 2020 in the TSBR. The blooming season as well as the pollen and nectar value were specified for each species. In addition, an index of abun-dance was assigned to each bee plant as an estimate of its relative abundance in a specific site and among the four sites visited. Bee forage plants are present throughout the flooded plain, including water bodies.

Bee plants blooms are occurring in the Tonle Sap flooded forest throughout the year. Successive blooms shall provide pollen and nectar in all seasons. The early raining season, May to August, sees the maximum diversity in blooming bee plants. The distribution of flowering periods of 11 major nectariferous plants suggests potential honey flows throughout almost all of the year with a peak during the early raining season and in particular in July and August.

The TSBR presents several opportunities for the development of sustainable beekeeping, namely: (i) an abundant and diverse bee flora generating successive blooms more or less throughout the year with a peak during the early rainy season, May to August (ii) extended pesticide free areas suitable to the production of organic honeys and (iii) extended swamp scrublands favorable to the development of rafter beekeeping.

However, the development of sustainable beekeeping in the TSBR will also face several challenges, including: (i) annual water fluctuations restricting access to apiaries and imposing constraints to beehives installation and transportation, (ii) extensive and recurrent forest fires and consequent colonies destruction and bee forage depletion, (iii) high moisture content of rainy season honeys enhancing their tendency to ferment, which may in turn affect their commercialization, (iv) widespread concern among Cambodian customers about honey adulteration challenging access to market for new beekeepers, and (v) high demand for bee brood and multiple origins honey collectors (honey hunters operating in the TSBR belong to numerous communities) constituting a challenge to the introduction of sustainable honey harvesting.

Three beekeeping options are suggested to overcome the water level fluctuations challenge: (i) beekeeping on platforms in the upper part of the flooded plain, (ii) beekeeping on stilt houses and (iii) meliponiculture on floating houses. A set of measures is also proposed to prevent further decline and contribute to the restoration of the TSBR population of Apis dorsata. The report also provides a comparative analysis of different bee managementsoptions in the context of the TSBR from technical, social, economic and environmental perspectives.