Unit 2: Freedom, Ethics and Social Accountability

Last update:11 April 2024

Key Topics

  • Freedom of expression, freedom of the press, freedom of information and information ethics
  • Codes of ethics, codes of practice and global values in the newsroom: guidelines for media and information professionals
  • Journalistic ethics in news gathering and processing (ethic committees, ombudsman, independent press councils/press complaint commissions)
  • Rights and social agency of citizens
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Learning Objectives

After completing this unit, educators will be able to:

  • Describe the universal principles of freedom of the press, freedom of expression and freedom of information, and their implications for news reporting
  • Analyse how ethics applies to the practice of journalism and to information professionals at the personal, professional and global levels
  • Appreciate the role of press freedom advocates and media watchdogs in pursuing and protecting press freedom and responsibility
  • Explain the corresponding rights and participation of citizens as an enactment of social and cognitive justice
  • Understand and analyse citizen reporting or the evolving role of citizens or non- professional journalists as active participants in generating media content and in the democratic process of public debate

Accountability

“It is information that makes the subject a citizen and allows him or her to exercise rights effectively." - Loiê Hervouet, Journalist and former president of the School of Journalism of Lille

If the state overregulates the media, it will interfere with the independence of journalists and their ability to cover events according to standards of professional reporting and public interest. The media are social actors who can exert great power in society, and it is therefore important that they live up to the expected norms for journalism. Thus, it is believed that journalists need to regulate themselves by adopting codes of ethical conduct or setting out professional guidelines on how stories or events should be covered. Together with this, journalists and citizens have an obligation to ensure the distribution of accurate information that is representative of a variety of credible perspectives.

Application: Code of Journalistic Ethics

Examine an example of a code of ethics established by international journalist associations or national media organizations (one example is the code of ethics established by the lnternational Federation of Journalists; another example would be the BBC's professional standards). Assess the intended purpose of each element of the code.

  • Discuss why a code of ethics should be developed and agreed upon by the members of the profession themselves and not imposed by external agents or authorities
  • Discuss the mechanisms needed to enforce the code of ethics
  • Look for examples and examine differences between of 1) code of ethics and

2) code of conduct ethics established by international journalist associations or national media organizations, for instance.

  • Discuss self-regulation, forms of co-regulation, and statutory regulation. What are the pros and cons of each for professional, independent journalism?

Application: Code of Professional Ethics for Information Professionals

Examine a code of ethics established by information professionals, such as librarians or archivists, including major principles and values44). See how this code could potentially differ from a code of conduct established by international journalist associations or national media organizations.

  • Discuss differences between directional and aspirational codes
  • Discuss differences between codes of conduct and codes of ethics
  • Discuss information ethics issues related to accuracy, transparency, ownership, access, privacy, security and community
  • Discuss how information ethics infuence personal decisions, professional practice and public policy
  • Discuss how evolving new information formats and needs infuence ethical principles, and how these codes are applied (e.g. social media policies, digital preservation, privacy, access to public information).

Application: What is our Social Agency?

Visit the Digital Citizenship website and review . These nine elements require individuals to lead and assist others within one’s community to become active digital citizens, recognize positive and negative consequences of actions, and practice good habits. Cognitive justice also acknowledges the importance of representing content from minority groups, using lesser known but valid resources and promoting indigenous knowledge.

  • Provide examples based on your personal experience related to each of the nine elements
  • Evaluate your own competency in relation to these elements and consider which aspects require improvement
  • Discuss how information and digital access infuence your ability to evaluate information.

See more on audiences and global citizenship in Module 5.

Pedagogical Approaches and Activities

In summary: as discussed earlier in this Curriculum (Part 1), various pedagogical approaches are possible. Please review the list in Part 1 and decide which approach to apply to the suggested Activities below and others that you may formulate.

Guide participants to discuss indexes such as ,  the  Worldwide  Press  ,  or  a relevant regional measure, such as the media Afrobarometer. The learner will: (1) explain whether they think such indexes is relevant or useful to development; (2) identify and explain the factors or variables that have affected the freedom of the press. 

  • Criteria covered in these indices include the following:
    • Degree of freedom of print, broadcast and online media
    • Legal environment for media
    • Political pressures that infuence reporting
    • Economic factors that affect access to information
    • Media ownership concentration
    • Direct attacks on journalists and media
    • Existence of state monopoly in media
    • Existence of censorship and self-censorship in media
    • Diffculties for foreign reporters
    • How digital communications company curate news media content in comparison to other content (e.g. e-personal content, entertainment, etc.)
  • There are many organizations in the world that campaign to defend journalists. Some are international, such as International Media Support in Denmark, Article 19 in London in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Committee to Protect Journalists in New York, United States of America, the Freedom of Expression Institute (FXI) in South Africa, and UNESCO, which issues the biennial Director-General’s Report on the Safety of Journalists and the Danger of Impunity. Consider whether there are press freedom organizations active in your country and how these have contributed to the protection of press freedom and freedom of expression.
  • Educators could show examples of reporting that depict prejudices, including stereotyping, mythmaking, obscenity and graphic images. Participants should be led through a discussion on the importance of standards and general guidelines for journalists and will submit a report on the issues presented in the examples.
  • The educator can interview or invite a media ombudsman or representative of a media watchdog organization (or similar group) to inquire about common criticisms or complaints of alleged professional or ethical lapses of journalists and/or news organizations. The educator guides learners to review provisions of codes of ethics and examines whether issues raised are adequately covered in existing professional codes. Participants call local media outlets to check if they have codes of conduct for their journalists. They may inquire further about how provisions of these codes are being enforced or implemented.
  • The educator can guide learners to make an inventory of the coverage by citizen reporting of an event or issue prominently covered by mainstream media. They then check for factual errors or bias.
  • Learners should be guided to maintain a journal or log-book where daily observations on issues relevant to the topic (e.g. violations of freedom of the press/ expression/information, examples of unethical practice of journalism) are recorded for summary and synthesis at the end of the course.

Assessment & Recommendations

  • Media log
  • Research papers (e.g., press freedom rating, codes of conduct, citizen reporting)
  • Refection papers on interviews, TV/film viewing
  • Participation in group learning activities (e.g., workshops, class discussions)
  • Comparison tables containing differences and similarities of different codes

Topics for Further Consideration

  • Internet governance issues: should digital communications companies self- regulate, co-regulate, or be subjected to state regulation, and on what issues?
  • Public’s right to know and principles of freedom of information: Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
  • Freedom of information/expression: international covenants, conventions, declarations and charters, and national laws (constitutional provisions; laws on libel, national security)
  • Access to information laws and procedures, as well as declarations, charters and recommendations
  • What constitutes an ideal freedom of information law and practice
  • Self-regulation and media ombudsman
  • Reporters’ rights

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